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Rural Health
Research Gateway

Healthcare financing

Research Products & Journal Articles

Browse the full list of research publications on this topic completed by the Rural Health Research Centers.

Products – Freely accessible products include policy briefs, fact sheets, full reports, chartbooks, and interactive data websites.

Journal Articles – Articles in peer-reviewed journals may require a subscription or affiliation with a subscribing library. For these publications, Gateway lists the article citation, a brief summary, a link to additional information and access to the full-text of the article, if available.

2024

  • An Updated Model of Rural Hospital Financial Distress
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 10/2024
    In fall 2024, the North Carolina Rural Health Research Program completed a study modeling financial distress among rural hospitals, "An Updated Model of Rural Hospital Financial Distress." The model updates a 2016 version, by adding recent changes in the operating environment.
  • Financial Performance of Rural and Urban Hospitals in the Medicare Shared Savings Program
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 09/2024
    This brief presents financial performance trends of hospitals who participated in Medicare's Shared Savings Program (SSP) from 2011 to 2018. Trends in six financial outcomes are compared between SSP and non-SSP hospitals over time and between rural and urban hospitals.
  • Profiling Social Needs Activities in Publicly Traded Medicare Advantage Organizations
    Journal Article
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 08/2024
    This article reviews how six major Medicare Advantage (MA) companies address social determinants of health (SDOH) through supplemental benefits. It analyzes public reports, highlighting MA growth, SDOH activities, and plan initiatives.

2023

  • Suitability of Low-Volume Rural Emergency Departments to New Rural Emergency Hospital Designation
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center, Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 09/2023
    The Rural Emergency Hospital is a new Medicare payment model that requires hospitals to focus on emergency, observation, and outpatient services in lieu of inpatient care. This study's exploratory objective was to examine care delivery from eligible hospitals to assess their fit with the new payment model.
  • Policy Implications of Fixed-to-Total-Cost Ratio Variation Across Rural and Urban Hospitals
    Journal Article
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 05/2023
    This article utilizes hospital cost report data to estimate the relationship between adjusted volume and total costs of patient care. These results are used to estimate fixed-to-total-cost ratios for all nonfederal, short-term acute care hospitals in the U.S. These ratios were then stratified by rurality and Critical Access Hospital status.
  • Financial Risk Acceptance Among Rural Health Care Providers Participating in the Quality Payment Program
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 03/2023
    This policy brief summarizes non-metropolitan and metropolitan providers' participation in different Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Quality Payment Program tracks and subdivisions, and evaluates provider and patient-panel characteristics associated with financial risk acceptance.
  • Rural Working-Age Adults Report More Cost Barriers to Health Care
    Policy Brief
    Maine Rural Health Research Center
    Date: 03/2023
    Using the 2019-2020 National Health Insurance Survey, this study examined rural-urban differences in affordability of care and cost-saving strategies among working-age adults.

2022

  • Community Sociodemographics and Rural Hospital Survival
    Journal Article
    Center for Economic Analysis of Rural Health
    Date: 12/2022
    This study examines whether community sociodemographic factors are associated with the survival or closure of rural hospitals at risk of financial distress between 2010 and 2019.
  • The Impact of Medicare Shared Savings Program Participation on Hospital Financial Performance: An Event-Study Analysis
    Journal Article
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 10/2022
    This study evaluated the extent to which Medicare Shared Savings Program participation affected hospital financial outcomes, including patient revenue, operating margin, different revenue source shares, and allowance and discount rate.
  • Higher Electronic Health Record Functionality Is Associated With Lower Operating Costs in Urban—but Not Rural—Hospitals
    Journal Article
    Center for Economic Analysis of Rural Health
    Date: 07/2022
    This study examines the relationship between electronic health record use/functionality and hospital operating costs and compares the results across rural and urban facilities.
  • Nursing Homes in Rural America: A Chartbook
    Chartbook
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 07/2022
    Closure of nursing homes and hospitals with swing beds in recent years has changed the availability of post-acute and long-term care services in rural areas. This study examines the availability of post-acute and long-term care services as well as characteristics of residents and nursing homes in noncore, micropolitan, and metropolitan counties.
  • The Economic Effects of Rural Hospital Closures
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 03/2022
    This study updates previous research (Holmes, et al. 2006) on the economic effects of rural hospital closures by measuring the economic changes over time among U.S. rural counties that had a hospital closure from 2001-2018.

2021

2020

  • Telehealth Use in a Rural State: A Mixed Methods Study Using Maine's All-Payer Claims Database
    Journal Article
    Rural Telehealth Research Center
    Date: 10/2020
    This study examines trends in telehealth use in Maine and identifies barriers and facilitators to its adoption. While telehealth appears to improve access to behavioral health and speech therapy services, provider shortages, lack of broadband, and restrictive Medicare and commercial coverage plans limit telehealth services use in rural areas.
  • Rural Hospital Participation in Medicare Accountable Care Organizations
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 04/2020
    This policy brief summarizes national and regional rates of rural hospital participation in Medicare Shared Savings Program Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs) and identifies factors associated with ACO participation.

2019

  • Impact of the Medicare Disproportionate Share Hospital Payment Cap on Urban and Rural Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 12/2019
    The Medicare Disproportionate Share Hospital payment adjustment is intended to compensate hospitals serving a disproportionate number of low-income patients. This policy brief describes the number and location of urban and rural hospitals affected by a 12% payment cap established by the Medicare Modernization Act of 2003.
  • Rural Health Clinic Costs and Medicare Reimbursement
    Policy Brief
    Maine Rural Health Research Center
    Date: 11/2019
    We used cost report data to examine Rural Health Clinic (RHC) services costs. The findings support the National Advisory Committee on Rural Health & Human Service's conclusion that the cost-based methodology used to determine Medicare reimbursement for RHCs is outdated and RHCs subject to the reimbursement cap are paid less than their costs.
  • 2019 Wage Index Differences and Selected Characteristics of Rural and Urban Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 05/2019
    This brief characterizes rural/urban disparities in the 2019 Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services hospital wage index by describing and comparing the wage indices of rural and urban hospitals by the number of beds, the amount of net patient revenue, and Medicare payment classification.
  • Rural/Urban and Regional Variation in the 2019 CMS Hospital Wage Index
    Policy Brief
    Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 05/2019
    This brief describes the geographic variation of the 2019 Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services hospital wage index by rural/urban definition, census region, Frontier and Remote Area codes and state.
  • Geographic Variation in the 2019 Risk of Financial Distress Among Rural Hospitals
    Policy Brief
    Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 04/2019
    This brief investigates 2019 geographic variation in risk of financial distress among rural hospitals.
  • Primary Care Clinician Participation in the CMS Quality Payment
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 04/2019
    Approximately 10% of primary care clinicians participate in Advanced Alternative Payment Models (A-APMs) and less than 30% of primary care clinicians participate in the Merit-Based Incentive Payment System. Metropolitan primary care clinicians are more likely to participate in A-APMs than nonmetropolitan primary care clinicians.
  • Trends in Risk of Financial Distress Among Rural Hospitals, 2015 to 2019
    Policy Brief
    Rapid Response to Requests for Rural Data Analysis
    Date: 04/2019
    This brief investigates 2015 to 2019 trends in risk of financial distress among rural hospitals by census region and Medicare payment classification.

2018

  • Changes to the Merit-Based Incentive Payment System Pertinent to Small and Rural Practices, 2018
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 11/2018
    This policy brief highlights key regulatory changes to the Merit-based Incentive Payment System that occurred in 2018. It discusses the implications of these changes with an emphasis on how these changes may affect small and rural practices.
  • Spread of Medicare Accountable Care Organizations in Rural America
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 08/2018
    This policy brief describes Medicare accountable care organization (ACO) growth in non-metropolitan U.S. counties from 2016 to 2017. This brief, which includes data through December 2017, follows a similar analysis released in October 2016 that described ACO trends from 2013 to 2015.
  • Medicare Accountable Care Organization Growth in Rural America, 2014-2016
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 03/2018
    This RUPRI Center data report describes Medicare accountable care organization (ACO) growth in non-metropolitan U.S. counties from 2014 to 2016. ACOs are the most widespread of the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) value-based payment programs and demonstrations.

2017

2016

  • How Would Rural Hospitals Be Affected by Loss of the Affordable Care Act's Medicare Low-Volume Hospital Adjustment?
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 11/2016
    Using data from the Hospital Market Service Area File, the Hospital Cost Report Information System, and Nielsen-Claritas Pop-Facts, this study examined the effect the low-volume hospital payment adjustment has on a hospital's finances. It also looked at the effects of losing the payment adjustment.
  • To What Extent Do Community Characteristics Explain Differences in Closure Among Financially Distressed Rural Hospitals?
    Journal Article
    North Carolina Rural Health Research and Policy Analysis Center
    Date: 11/2016
    This study examined the differences between rural hospitals at high risk of financial distress that stayed open and those that closed.
  • Spread of Accountable Care Organizations in Rural America
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 10/2016
    This brief updates a RUPRI Center analysis of the presence of Medicare Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs) in rural areas of the US in 2013. Using participation data through 2015, the current brief finds that there has been broad growth in the number of places where ACO participating providers can be found, including rural locations.
  • Financial Performance of Rural Medicare ACOs
    Journal Article
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 08/2016
    Assesses the financial performances of rural accountable care organizations (ACOs) based on different levels of rural presence.
  • Access to Rural Home Health Services: Views From the Field
    Report
    WWAMI Rural Health Research Center
    Date: 02/2016
    Access to home health care can be challenging for rural Medicare clients. Key informants for this study detailed obstacles, including financial, regulatory, workforce, and geographic issues. Rural communities will likely benefit from payment reforms that reward quality services while providing incentives to use best practices in home health care.

2015

  • Medicare Value-Based Payment Reform: Priorities for Transforming Rural Health Systems
    Report
    RUPRI Health Panel: Rural Policy Analysis and Applications
    Date: 11/2015
    As Medicare moves to value-based payment, healthcare groups are made more accountable for patient health. But the changes have been concentrated in urban areas. Policies meant to strengthen rural health systems are complicating payment and delivery system reform in rural areas. This study examines ways to include rural areas in the changes.
  • Rural Enrollment in Health Insurance Marketplaces, by State
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 10/2015
    This brief compares cumulative enrollment totals in Health Insurance Marketplaces in metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas by state and the percentages of potential market participants enrolled. Non-metropolitan enrollment rates were higher in several states. The analysis shows how well outreach/enrollment efforts targeting rural areas work.
  • Care Coordination in Rural Communities Supporting the High Performance Rural Health System
    Report
    RUPRI Health Panel: Rural Policy Analysis and Applications
    Date: 06/2015
    This paper examines care coordination programs and processes that affect rural areas to discover what is happening in rural communities, how various programs and approaches are working, who benefits, and to make policy recommendations that will facilitate care coordination efforts in support of high performance rural health system development.
  • Health Insurance Marketplaces: Early Findings on Changes in Plan Availability and Premiums in Rural Places, 2014-2015
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 05/2015
    Analysis of national county-level Health Insurance Marketplace (HIM) plan data for 2014 and 2015 shows there is no systematic pattern to rural experiences of HIMs, although some isolated places may be at risk for weak outcomes.
  • Developmental Strategies and Challenges for Rural Accountable Care Organizations
    Policy Brief
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 02/2015
    This brief offers insights into the initial strategic decisions and challenges of four accountable care organizations (ACOs) with rural presences. These ACOs were formed as a step toward a value-driven rural delivery system. While several challenges need to be addressed, these insights can inform development of other rural ACOs.

2013

  • Assessing the Impact of Rural Provider Service Mix on the Primary Care Incentive Payment Program
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 12/2013
    Under the Primary Care Incentive Payment Program (PCIP), if certain evaluation and management services represented 60% or more of Medicare allowable charges, the provider qualified for a 10% bonus calculated on the primary care portion of allowable charges. This brief assesses the impact of the rural provider service mix on the PCIP.
  • Are Primary Care Practices Ready to Become Patient-Centered Medical Homes?
    Journal Article
    RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis
    Date: 2013
    Measures the readiness of rural primary care practices to be eligible as patient-centered medical homes (PCMHs) by comparing PCMH readiness scores with metropolitan and nonmetropolitan primary care practices.

2011

  • The High Performance Rural Health Care System of the Future
    RUPRI Health Panel: Rural Policy Analysis and Applications
    Date: 09/2011
    This project describes a future rural system that would be built on foundations of affordability, accessibility, community focus, high quality, and patient centeredness.

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2002

2001

2000